Laṅkāvatārasūtra

लङ्कावतारसूत्र

Laṅkāvatārasūtra

འཕགས་པ་ལང་ཀར་གཤེགས་པའི་ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོའི་མདོ།

'phags pa lang kar gshegs pa'i theg pa chen po'i mdo

入楞伽經

SOURCE TEXT

An important Mahāyāna sūtra that was highly influential in East Asia as well as in Nepal, where a manuscript was discovered that remains the only extant Sanskrit recension of this text. It is notable for its inclusion of many doctrinal features that would come to be associated with the Yogācāra philosophy of Mind-Only (Cittamātra), such as the ālayavijñāna, or store-house consciousness, that acts as a repository for the seeds of karmic actions. It also includes several lengthy discussions of tathāgatagarbha and, though it is never actually referenced in the Uttaratantra, it is often listed among the so-called tathāgatagarbha sūtras. While its lack of mention in the Uttaratantra has been interpreted by scholars as evidence that the sūtra postdates the treatise, it should be noted that the ways in which the tathāgatagarbha is discussed in the sūtra is often at odds with its presentation in the Uttaratantra.

Description from When the Clouds Part

It seems that most modern scholars agree that this sūtra originated later than the Uttaratantra and RGVV, which would explain why it is not quoted or referred to in these texts.^[1] This may be supported by the date 420 Ce of the earliest Chinese translation of the sūtra (which is now lost) as well as its not being explicitly quoted by name in Indian texts before the time of Sthiramati and Dharmapāla (if one disregards the attribution of the Sūtrasamuccaya to Nāgārjuna, which contains four quotes from the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, mentioning it by name). On the other hand, Lindtner (1992) pointed out a number of close textual relationships between this sūtra and early Madhyamaka texts by Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva. In any case, that this sūtra is not mentioned in the Uttaratantra and RGVV^[2] is not necessarily due to its possible later origin. Its equation of tathāgatagarbha with emptiness and the ālaya-consciousness, as well as its statement that tathāgatagarbha is taught only for the sake of removing fear of emptiness and attracting non-Buddhists, clearly do not accord with the position of the Uttaratantra and RGVV and are reason enough for these texts not to refer to it. This very issue also seems to be responsible for the Laṅkāvatārasūtra ’s not being included in any of the above lists of tathāgatagarbha sūtras despite its detailed discussions of the notion of tathāgatagarbha.

The entire Laṅkāvatārasūtra consists of a dialogue between the Buddha and the bodhisattva Mahāmati. Though this sūtra is not mentioned in the Uttaratantra, RGVV, or the above lists of tathāgatagarbha sūtras (except for Mipham’s Synopsis, but only in a very limited sense), it discusses the teachings on tathāgatagarbha in great detail. However, in accordance with its generally heterogeneous nature of saying different things in different places, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra uses the term tathāgatagarbha in a number of very different ways. For example, the text speaks several times of tathāgatagarbha as being the sphere of the personally experienced wisdom of the noble ones. Tathāgatagarbha is also equated with suchness and the perfect nature (pariniṣpanna):

Mahāmati, what is the perfect nature here? It is as follows. It is
the sphere of the personally experienced wisdom of the noble ones, the
attainment of the realization of suchness by the wisdom of the noble
ones, which is free from conceptions about the characteristics of causal
features, names, and entities. Mahāmati, the perfect nature is the very
heart of the tathāgata heart.^[3]

The tenth chapter equates tathāgatagarbha with naturally luminous mind and, similar to the Tathāgatagarbhasūtra, uses the examples of gold in gold ore and a stained cloth for the tathāgata heart’s being obscured by adventitious stains. Like most of the above sūtras, it even equates tathāgatagarbha with the true self, which is clearly distinguished from the self of the tīrthikas and even outshines the lack of self:

The dialecticians who are confused in the thicket
Of consciousness, lack the proper doctrine,
And wish to propound a self
Just keep running here and there.

The self to be realized in one’s personal experience
Has the characteristic of purity.
This tathāgata heart
Is not the sphere of dialecticians.
.. .
The ālaya that is held to be like this heart
Is described by the tīrthikas
As being associated with a self,
But that is not what the dharmas [of the buddhas] proclaim.

Through distinguishing these [two selves],
Liberation and reality are seen
And the afflictions to be relinquished
Through seeing and familiarization are purified.

Naturally luminous mind
Is the pure tathāgata heart,
But this appropriation of sentient beings
Is free from limit and nonlimit.

The color of gold and the pure gold
In gravel become visible
Through cleansing it—so it is with the ālaya
Of the skandhas in a sentient being.^[4]

Buddha is neither a person
Nor the skandhas but uncontaminated wisdom.
Having familiarized with it, it is always peacefulness—
In it, I take my refuge.

That mind’s natural luminosity
Is associated with mentation and so on,
Afflictions, and a self
Is what the supreme speaker has taught.
.. .
The naturally luminous self
Is afflicted by beginningless
Adventitious afflictions and is purified
Like a garment [from the dirt it] possesses.

Just as a garment becoming stainless
And gold becoming free from flaws
Remain and are not destroyed,
So this self is without any flaws.^[5]

The verses that follow these provide a number of examples for this tathāgata heart—the true self as opposed to the mistaken notion of a personal self— not being seen in the skandhas by the ignorant (similar to a woman’s not seeing her own womb, jewels in the earth, or the healing essence of a medicinal plant). This passage of the sūtra concludes with praising the true self and strongly criticizing the view that there is no such self:

If the self does not exist, there are no
Bhūmis, masteries, supernatural knowledges,
No unsurpassable empowerments,
And no special samādhis.

Unspeakable are those who speak of the lack of the self—
They separate themselves from the activities of bhikṣus,
Harm the dharmas of the Buddha,
And entertain views about existence and nonexistence.

This pronouncement of the self blazes
Like the fire at the end of time,
Consumes the jungle of the lack of the self,
And is liberated from the flaws of the tīrthikas.^[6]

In that vein and similar to the Śrīmālādevīsūtra, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra also uses the distinct term "a mind distracted from/by emptiness" (śūnyatāvikṣiptamati):

Mahāmati, it is the tathāgata heart, which is the cause of nirvāṇa, happiness, and suffering, that circles in saṃsāra. Naive ordinary beings whose minds are distracted by emptiness do not understand this.^[7]

The sūtra also says that tathāgatagarbha is the primordially pure luminosity that possesses all the major marks of a buddha and always dwells immutably within all sentient beings, similar to a gem wrapped in a dirty cloth:

Then, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Mahāmati said the following to the Bhagavān: "The Bhagavān taught the tathāgata heart in the discourses of the sūtra collection. You stated that, by virtue of the purity of natural luminosity, it is primordially pure, endowed with the thirty-two major marks, and hidden within the bodies of all sentient beings. The Bhagavān declared that, just like a gem of great value wrapped in a stained cloth, it is wrapped up in the cloth of the skandhas, dhātus, and āyatanas, is tainted by the stains of desire, hatred, ignorance, and false imagination^[8] [but] is permanent, eternal, peaceful, and everlasting."^[9]

The Laṅkāvatārasūtra uses several synonyms for tathāgatagarbha, such as "buddha disposition" and "tathāgata disposition." This disposition is described as not only being free from all eight consciousnesses but also free from the essential teachings to be cultivated on the path, such as the three natures and twofold identitylessness. At the same time, it is adorned with all kinds of qualities, such as supernatural knowledges, samādhis, and powers:

Mind, twofold identitylessness,
Mentation, consciousness,
The [three] natures, and the five dharmas^[10]
Do not exist in my disposition.

What is free from the characteristics of mind,
Without consciousness and mentation,
And lacks the dharmas and natures
Is the tathāgata disposition.

.. .
What is adorned by supernatural knowledges,
Faculties, samādhis, and powers
And endowed with all kinds of mental bodies
Is the pure tathāgata disposition.

Stainless personal experience
And free from causal features—
The eighth bhūmi and the buddhabhūmi
Are the tathāgata disposition.^[11]

Likewise, the ninth and tenth bhūmis are also said to represent the tathāgata disposition.^[12] In addition, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra clearly and repeatedly affirms that there is only a single yāna—the one to buddhahood. Obviously, all of this is very much in line with what other tathāgatagarbha sūtras teach and also resembles the examples used in the Tathāgatagarbhasūtra.

On the other hand, the Buddha explicitly states in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra that what all sūtras of all buddhas teach is nothing but emptiness, nonarising, nonduality, and the lack of nature.^[13] In addition, the sūtra often discusses these topics as well as the notion of identitylessness in detail. Clearly, this does not accord with the above passages in the same sūtra, or with statements in other tathāgatagarbha sūtras. It corresponds rather to the well-known passages in the Samādhirājasūtra and the Akṣayamatinirdeśasūtra about which sūtras are of definitive meaning, namely, those that teach emptiness and its equivalents,^[14] which were followed by all Mādhyamikas. Given this discrepancy, Mahāmati of course asks how the Buddha’s above teachings on tathāgatagarbha (which is even explicitly called "the self") are different from the ātman of the Hindus:

In that case, Bhagavan, isn’t the doctrine of the tathāgata heart similar to the doctrine of the self of the tīrthikas? Bhagavan, the tīrthikas too teach the doctrine of the self, which is a permanent creator, without qualities, all-pervasive, and imperishable.^[15]

In his answer, the Buddha declares that tathāgatagarbha is not like the ātman and that it actually is another word for emptiness. It was taught for the sake of preventing fear of emptiness in certain people and as a means to expediently guide non-Buddhists into the Buddhist teachings:

The Bhagavān said, "Mahāmati, my instruction on the tathāgata heart is not similar to the doctrine of the self of the tīrthikas. Rather, Mahāmati, the tathāgatas give the instruction on the tathāgata heart as bearing the meaning of words such as emptiness, true end, nirvāṇa, nonarising, signlessness, and wishlessness.^[16] Thus, for the sake of relinquishing what makes naive beings afraid of the lack of a self, the tathāgata arhats, the completely perfect buddhas, teach the sphere of nonconceptuality and nonappearance through the introductory instruction on the tathāgata heart.
Now, Mahāmati, future and present bodhisattva mahāsattvas should not cling to the self. Mahāmati, a potter makes various containers from a single lump of clay of one sort with his hands, artistic skill, a stick, water, and a rope. Mahāmati, likewise, through all kinds of forms of prajñā and skill in means, the tathāgatas [teach] phenomenal identitylessness, in which all characteristics of conceptions have terminated, either through the instruction on the [tathāgata] heart or through the instruction on identitylessness. Just like a potter, they teach it through all kinds of words, expressions, and synonyms. For that reason, Mahāmati, the instruction on the tathāgata heart is not the same as the instruction on the doctrine of the self of the tīrthikas.
Thus, Mahāmati, the tathāgatas teach the instruction on the tathāgata heart through teaching the tathāgata heart in order to attract the tīrthikas, who cling to the doctrine of the self. So how may those whose thinking falls into the views of conceiving an incorrect self and those who succumb to falling into the sphere of three [kinds of] liberation^[17] swiftly awaken to unsurpassable and completely perfect awakening? Mahāmati, it is for their sake that the tathāgata arhats, the completely perfect buddhas, give the instruction on the tathāgata heart. Therefore, this is not similar to the doctrine of a self of the tīrthikas. Consequently, in order to put an end to the views of the tīrthikas, they need to become followers of the heart of nonself of a tathāgata (tathāgatanairātmyagarbha)."^[18]

Thus, here the Laṅkāvatārasūtra seems to present the teachings on tathāgatagarbha as a provisional means, while in reality tathāgatagarbha means nothing other than emptiness and identitylessness. Though other tathāgatagarbha sūtras such as the Śrīmālādevīsūtra and the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra also say that buddha nature should not be mistaken for the ātman, the thrust of their statements appears to be completely different from what is said here. For both these sūtras teach that the characteristic or pāramitā of self is a true feature or equivalent of the tathāgata heart, and the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra even says that the lack of a self or identitylessness is merely a means to refute the tīrthikas. The Laṅkāvatārasūtra here seems to proclaim the reverse—the teachings on buddha nature are a means to alleviate the fear of emptiness found in non-Buddhists and to indirectly introduce them to the definitive meaning that is emptiness and the lack of a self. Obviously, these statements played a significant role for the later reception of the buddha nature teaching in India, such as its integration as a provisional instruction into the Madhyamaka tradition. This provided a basis for Indian and Tibetan Madhyamaka interpretations that the tathāgatagarbha teachings are of expedient meaning.

However, this section in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra must be read in conjunction with the sūtra’s above strong statements about the tathāgata heart’s being the true self (as opposed to the wrong notion of a self entertained by the tīrthikas), which can be realized only by "those whose minds are not distracted by emptiness" (that is, by a nihilistic misunderstanding of emptiness rather than understanding the true emptiness that is the tathāgata heart) and those who do not hold the view of the lack of such a self. It is also highly significant that the above section says that "all characteristics of conceptions have terminated, either through the instruction on the [tathāgata] heart or through the instruction on identitylessness," which clearly shows that the instruction on tathāgatagarbha is naturally understood as an approach that is as nonreifying as the instruction on identitylessness or emptiness. Equally significant in that regard is the use of the term "the heart of nonself of a tathāgata," which explicitly combines or unites both notions. In addition, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra ’s passage below that summarizes its approach to tathāgatagarbha says that it is the object of the tathāgatas and was explained for Śrīmālādevī in order to teach phenomenal identitylessness to the śrāvakas. However, in itself, it is not the object of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and tīrthikas, who cling to the teachings in a literal manner, but the object only of great bodhisattvas with subtle and sharp intelligence, who rely on the meaning rather than the words. All of this suggests that the teachings on tathāgatagarbha and the teachings on emptiness or identitylessness are understood in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra as actually being fully equivalent rather than the former’s being a provisional and preliminary introduction to the latter. Indeed, as other tathāgatagarbha sūtras and RGVV also suggest, the notion of buddha nature is exactly that which represents the correct understanding of emptiness.

Now, an even more puzzling and ambiguous explanation of tathāgatagarbha in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra is the one that equates it with the ālaya-consciousness. This ālaya-consciousness or tathāgata heart is said to contain both contaminated and uncontaminated latent tendencies, and thus to be both momentary and not momentary:

Mahāmati, the ālaya-consciousness, which is known as "the tathāgata heart," is momentary in its being associated with mentation as well as the latent tendencies of the active consciousnesses,^[19] [but] it is non-momentary [in its being associated] with the uncontaminated latent tendencies. Naïve ordinary beings who are attached to the doctrine of momentariness do not realize [the difference between] the momentariness and the nonmomentariness of all phenomena. Since they do not realize it, they destroy even unconditioned phenomena through their view of extinction.^[20]

Mahāmati, the collections of the five [sense] consciousnesses are not subject to saṃsāra, nor do they experience suffering and happiness, nor are they the causes of nirvāṇa. Mahāmati, what flourishes and terminates is the tathāgata heart, which is associated with the causes of the sufferings and happinesses that are experienced [as their results] and congeals through the four [kinds of] latent tendencies.^[21] It is not realized by naive beings whose minds are infused with conceptions about the view of momentariness.^[22]

Similarly, the sūtra says that the tathāgata heart represents the cause of both virtue and nonvirtue, effects all births and existences in saṃsāra, and yet is free from a self and what is mine, just like a dancer doing various performances.^[23]

However, to leave no doubt about its ultimate stance and in line with its above statements about tathāgatagarbha, the sūtra declares that the ālaya-consciousness—the tathāgata heart—is indestructible, just like gold’s or diamonds’ remaining the same without ever increasing or decreasing. If the attainment of realization were momentary, it says, the noble ones would become nonnoble ones. So how could naive beings who are not skilled in explaining the intentions behind certain statements examine the meaning of momentariness correctly?^[24]

The sūtra also says repeatedly that the ālaya-consciousness, which is tainted by the impregnations of negative tendencies since beginningless time,^[25] is like the main body of a great ocean—uninterrupted, free from the flaw of impermanence, without any idea of a self, and naturally pure. The other seven consciousnesses are like its moving waves—being momentary, arisen from the ground of the latent tendencies of ignorance, caused by false imagination, and clinging to names and characteristics. Thus, the tathāgata heart (the ālaya-consciousness) is said to be naturally pure but, due to adventitious stains, it appears as if it were impure to non-Buddhists, śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas. This ālaya-consciousness still operates in non-Buddhists and even śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas who realize personal identitylessness. It is only through the realization of bodhisattvas that it can undergo a change and be purified:

Mahāmati, the tathāgata heart contains the causes of virtue and non-virtue and is the creator of all births and forms of existence. Free from a self and what is mine, like a dancer, it enters [all kinds of] dangerous forms of existence. . . . The tīrthikas, who cling to [different] causes, do not understand this. Being impregnated by all kinds of beginningless latent tendencies of the impregnations of negative tendencies of discursiveness, it is called "ālaya-consciousness." Its body, together with the seven consciousnesses that arise from the ground of the latent tendencies of ignorance, always operates uninterruptedly, just like a great ocean and its waves, is free from the flaw of impermanence, is the cessation of the position of a self, and is utterly pure by nature. The seven consciousnesses such as mentation and the mental consciousness, which are other than this and arise and perish, are momentary, arise from the cause that is false imagination, focus on collections of shapes, activities, and distinct instances, cling to names and characteristics, do not understand that appearing forms and characteristics are one’s own mind, do not discriminate happiness and suffering, are not the cause for liberation, arise through and give rise to names, characteristics, and rising desire, and have the [ālaya-consciousness] as their cause and support. Immediately after the so-called sense faculties conjoined [with consciousness] have become exhausted and have ceased, the others [the consciousnesses] do not arise and operate [anymore] either. Those yogins who do not discriminate the thoughts of their own minds as happiness and suffering, who rest in the meditative absorption of the cessation of discriminations and feelings, and who are skilled in the four dhyānas, the [four] realities, and the [eight] liberations entertain the thought of [actually] having been liberated.

[However,] if the ālaya-consciousness, which is known as "the tathāgata heart," does not undergo a change (parāvṛtti), there is no ces- sation of the seven active consciousnesses. For what reason? Because the consciousnesses flourish by virtue of [the ālaya-consciousness’s serving as] their cause and support, and [because the ālaya-consciousness] is not an object of any of the yogins [who are immersed] in the yogas of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and tīrthikas. Even when one realizes one’s own lack of a personal self and apprehends the specific and general characteristics of the skandhas, dhātus, and āyatanas, this tathāgata heart [still] flourishes. It terminates [only] through seeing the five dharmas, the [three] natures, and phenomenal identitylessness. Through its undergoing a change by progressing through the bhūmis, one cannot be distracted by the views about the path that others, that is, the tīrthikas, [hold]. . . . Therefore, Mahāmati, bodhisattva mahāsattvas who have this special goal should purify the tathāgata heart, which is known as "the ālaya-consciousness."

Mahāmati, suppose there were no tathāgata heart, which is known as "the ālaya-consciousness." Mahāmati, without this tathāgata heart, which is known as "the ālaya-consciousness," there would be no [such] flourishing and terminating. But, Mahāmati, there is [such] flourishing and terminating in naive beings and noble ones, respectively. The yogins who do not cease their efforts and are persevering abide by [dwelling in] their own personal experience of the noble ones and abiding blissfully amid the visible phenomena [of this life]. Mahāmati, this sphere that is the tathāgata heart, the ālaya-consciousness, is beyond the dialectical views of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and tīrthikas. Though it is completely pure by nature, due to its being afflicted by adventitious afflictions, it appears to them as if it were impure, but it does not [appear so] to the tathāgatas. Mahāmati, for the tathāgatas, it serves as the sphere of their direct perception, just like a myrobalan fruit in the palm of one’s hand.^[26]

Mind (citta as a synonym of the ālaya-consciousness or the tathāgata heart) is said to be neither separated from nor connected with the latent tendencies—it remains the same but is ensnared by latent tendencies. The dirt-like latent tendencies that arise from the mental consciousness sully the mind, which resembles a white garment. Just as space, the ālaya in the body is neither existent nor nonexistent. Once the mental consciousness has come to an end, mind as such is free of all turbidity—since mind knows all phenomena, it is buddhahood.^[27]

Thus, it is not surprising that the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, similar to other tathāgatagarbha sūtras, Yogācāra texts, and the Uttaratantra, uses the three examples of gold, water, and space for the purity of the mind free from adventitious stains:

Just like pure gold,
Water free from turbidity,
And a cloudless sky,
So is [the mind] pure of concepts.^[28]

The sūtra explicitly distinguishes an ultimate ālaya from a relative one that consists of cognizance (vijñapti). Ultimately, however, both are devoid of duality and thus are nothing but suchness:

Since the ultimate ālaya-consciousness
And the ālaya of cognizance
Are removed from apprehender and apprehended,
I teach them to be suchness.^[29]

A similar distinction is made with "mind" as an equivalent of the ālaya- consciousness:

The true nature of the mind is pure
But not the mind that arises from mistakenness.
Mistakenness comes from the impregnations of negative tendencies—
Therefore, the mind is not seen.^[30]

The text explicitly enumerates the eight consciousnesses as (1) the tathāgata heart, which is known as the ālaya-consciousness, (2) mentation, (3) the mental consciousness, and (4)–(8) the five sense consciousnesses.^[31] Once, the text even speaks of nine forms of consciousnesses:

Through improper conception,
Consciousness is operating
In eight or nine different kinds,
Just like waves on the ocean.^[32]

The sūtra does not explain what the ninth consciousness is, but it probably refers to tathāgatagarbha as the pure essence of the ālaya-consciousness.^[33]

Thus, the above distinction between an ultimate and a relative ālaya and at least some of the passages in which the tathāgata heart is linked to the ālaya-consciousness suggest that the tathāgata heart is not always understood as a complete equivalent of the ālaya-consciousness but rather as its intrinsically pure nature once it has been fully purified of all its latent tendencies. Thus, the true nature of the ālaya-consciousness in the sense of the tathāgata heart is not to be relinquished but only purified from its adventitious stains (this distinction is also made in a more explicit manner in the Ghanavyūhasūtra). This also implies that it is the tathāgata heart as the essence of the ālaya-consciousness that represents the universal foundation of both saṃsāra and nirvāṇa (that the ālaya-consciousness/tathāgatagarbha is such a foundation is in fact stated in the sūtra).

On the other hand, as seen above, the text also states that the ālaya-consciousness is momentary, is associated with the other seven momentary consciousnesses, and is the root of afflictiveness. Immediately following the above passage that ends with the example of the myrobalan fruit, the sūtra addresses such an obvious discrepancy by declaring that this is the explanation for śrāvakas, while the equation of the ālaya-consciousness with permanent buddha nature is the explanation for the sake of great bodhi- sattvas with sharp faculties. Moreover, the Buddha explicitly links what he said about the tathāgata heart to the Śrīmālādevīsūtra and summarizes the Laṅkāvatārasūtra’s approach to the ālaya-consciousness and tathāgatagarbha as follows:

"Mahāmati, this is what I [expressed] in the teachings for Śrīmālādevī and also for the sake of other bodhisattvas whose insight is subtle, sharp, and pure: I explained the tathāgata heart, which is known as ‘ālaya-consciousness’ and is associated with the seven [remaining] consciousnesses, as the object of the tathāgatas for the sake of Śrīmālādevī in order to teach phenomenal identitylessness to the śrāvakas, who are attached to the operating [of the ālaya-consciousness. But actually, in itself,] it is not the object of the dialectics of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and tīrthikas (who are other). Rather, Mahāmati, this very object of the tathāgatas—the object that is the tathāgata heart, the ālaya-consciousness—is [the object] of bodhisattva mahāsattvas like you, whose insight is subtle and sharp, whose intelligence is discriminating, and who rely on the meaning [rather than the words. However,] it is not [the object] of any tīrthikas (who are other), śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas, who cling to the expression of the teachings in a literal manner.^[34] Therefore, Mahāmati, you and other bodhisattva mahāsattvas should make efforts in fully realizing this object of all tathāgatas—the tathāgata heart, the ālaya-consciousness—and not be content with mere study." Here, [the Buddha] spoke the following [verses]:

The heart of the tathāgatas
Is associated with the seven consciousnesses.
Duality flourishes due to grasping
And terminates through full realization.

The mind appears like a reflection,
Created by beginningless thought.
When actual reality is seen as it is,
Neither referents nor the referent-maker exist.

Just as naive beings grasp at a fingertip
And do not look at the moon [it points to],
So those who are stuck on letters
Do not understand the true reality that is mine.

Mind dances like a dancer,
Mentation resembles a buffoon,
And consciousness with the five [senses]
Imagines appearances like a stage.^[35]

In sum, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra constantly appears to shift perspectives when presenting its crucial topics, such as endorsing versus more or less strongly criticizing or even denying the notions of a self, emptiness, identitylessness, the ālaya-consciousness, and cittamātra. However, rather than simply taking them to be contradictory, when read carefully in comparison, such shifts in perspective appear to be attempts (though not very systematic) to differentiate mistaken and correct ways of understanding those notions such as tathāgatagarbha, a self, and emptiness.

In particular, the sūtra seems to present the notion of tathāgatagarbha in four ways: (1) as a full equivalent of the ālaya-consciousness, which is the basis of, and operates together with, the other seven consciousnesses, (2) as the pure essence of the ālaya-consciousness that is not to be removed but only purified, (3) as the unchanging true self that only needs to be freed from its adventitious stains, and (4) as an equivalent of the correct understanding of emptiness and identitylessness. Obviously (2) and (3) are closely related in meaning but described separately in different passages of the sūtra.

As for the notion of "disposition" (gotra), the Laṅkāvatārasūtra presents five kinds of beings with five different dispositions—those who possess the dispositions for realizing the śrāvakayāna, the pratyekabuddhayāna, and the tathāgatayāna, respectively, those with an uncertain disposition, and those without disposition (agotraka). As for those without disposition, which are also called "those with great desire (icchantika)," not attaining buddhahood, the text describes two very different types of such persons. The first are those who have no wish for liberation because they have abandoned all roots of virtue, which primarily means that they reject the mahāyāna teachings. However, at some point, they will reconnect with virtue through the blessings of the buddhas and thus also attain buddhahood eventually. For the buddhas never abandon any sentient being. The second type are those with great desire who are bodhisattvas, that is, those who have taken the vow not to enter parinirvāṇa until all sentient beings have attained parinirvāṇa. They are referred to as "those with great desire" because their great desire is to lead all beings to buddhahood. It is by virtue of this aspiration and their skill in means that they do not enter nirvāṇa. Another reason why they do not pass into nirvāṇa is their realization that all phenomena are already nirvāṇa primordially. Brunnhölzl, K.. When the Clouds Part, pp. 25-38.

There are two Sanskrit editions by B. Nanjio (Kyoto: Otani University Press, 1923) and P. L. Vaidya (Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1963). The sūtra is also preserved in two Tibetan (D107, 136 folios and D108, ninety-three folios) and three Chinese translations (Taishō 670–72). D107 corresponds closely to Nanjio’s Sanskrit edition, while D108 is a Tibetan translation of the Chinese one by Guṇabhadra (Taishō 670). This translation lacks the first and the last two of the longer version’s ten chapters, which were obviously added later (as was probably the eighth one). The first, eighth, and ninth chapters are not at all related to the other chapters. Though the tenth chapter (entirely in verse) repeats over two hundred verses from the preceding chapters, about 680 verses are new. Many of them appear to be quite random, while some show significant differences in contents from the other chapters. Generally, except for the last chapter, most parts of the sūtra are taught in both a prose and a verse portion. As Shiu (2006, 171) reports, according to Fazang, when he assisted Śikṣānanda with the translation of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, he was faced with a total of five different versions of the work, and they had to carefully collate these different versions while also comparing their collation with the two earlier Chinese translations. The style of a collation or compilation of different sources is likewise obvious in the extant Sanskrit version and the Tibetan translation (naturally, it is very hard to tell what is to be considered " original" and what has been added later). For English translations and studies of this sūtra, see Suzuki 1930 and 1979, Sutton 1991, and Red Pine 2012. For a comparison of the Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit versions, see Suzuki 1979, 14–37.
Unless one follows CMW’s equation of the Prakrit verse about tathāgatas’ becoming visible like gold in stony debris being purified in RGVV (J6) with the similar verse X.751 in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra.
Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 67.15–17; D107, fol. 81b.6–7. Throughout, my translations from this sūtra follow the Sanskrit.
D107 ends with "so it is with sentient beings in the skandhas."
X.745–46, 748–53, and 755–56.
X.763 and 765–66.
Nanjio ed., p. 242.4–6; D107, fol. 152a.1–2. Note that D107 renders the compound śūnyatāvikṣipta as sting pa nyid kyis g.yengs pa.
A more literal (and more correct) translation of the classical Yogācāra term "false imagination" (Skt. abhūtaparikalpa, Tib. yang dag ma yin pa’i kun tog), also found in the Uttaratantra and RGVV, is "imagination of what is unreal." That is, what is meant is not that the imagination (parikalpa; which is equivalent to the dependent nature) itself is false or unreal (though it is ultimately so) but what it imagines (parikalpita; the imaginary nature) is unreal. Nevertheless, I chose "false imagination" since "imagination of what is unreal" appears to be too long and unwieldy a term and because "false" in "false imagination" (instead of "unreal imagination") can be understood as referring to the essentially mistaken mode of operation of imagination, which implies that what is imagined is false or unreal too. In Yogācāra in particular, the terms "imagination" (parikalpa) and "conception" (kalpana, vikalpa, and their cognates) refer to all the levels of the continuous, constructive yet deluded activity of the mind that never tires of producing all kinds of dualistic appearances and experiences, thus literally building its own saṃsāric world.D
'Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 77.13–78.1; D107, fols. 85.b.7–86a.3.
The five dharmas, which are taught in many mahāyāna scriptures, are names, causal features, imagination, perfect wisdom, and suchness. (1) "Names" are mere designations, such as "book." (2) "Causal features" (Skt. nimitta can mean both "cause" and "characteristic" and is to be understood in this double sense here) refers to the bases for such designations, that is, dualistically appearing entities that on the level of seeming reality, perform functions and have certain characteristics. (3) Here, "imagination" is a collective term for the eight kinds of consciousness. (4) "Perfect wisdom" bears this name because it is the perceiving subject of suchness. (5) "Suchness" is the ultimate object to be focused on through the path—the dharmadhātu. Among these, (1) corresponds to the imaginary nature, (2)–(3) represent the dependent nature, and (4)–(5) are the perfect nature in terms of subject and object (or the unmistaken and unchanging perfect nature), respectively.
X.417–418 and 420–421.
Note that this echoes RGVV’s (J3–4) explanation of the essences of the three jewels being attained on the eighth, ninth, and tenth bhūmis, respectively.
Nanjio ed., 77.3–4; D107, fol. 85b.4–5.
See Brunnhölzl 2004, 530–32.
Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 78.1–4; D107, fol. 86a.3–4.
A later parallel passage includes suchness, the nature of phenomena, the dharmakāya, the lack of nature, and being primordially void and peaceful in this list of equivalents of the tathāgata heart.
That is, the fruitions of the three Buddhist yānas.
Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 78.5–79.11; D107, fol. 86a.4–86b.5.
"Active consciousnesses" refers to the mental consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses.
Note that this paragraph bears some resemblance with Aṅgulimāla’s response to Mañjuśrī about properly distinguishing what is empty and what is not empty. This is further highlighted by the version of the first sentence in this paragraph that is mentioned in Shiu (2006, 171) and is found only in Bodhiruci’s Chinese translation of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra (Taishō 671, 559c; maybe a lost version of the sūtra), while it is absent in all other Chinese and Tibetan translations as well as the extant Sanskrit version: "Mahāmati, the notion of momentariness is known as ‘empty.’ The ālaya-consciousness, which is known as the tathāgata heart, without the latent tendencies of the common active consciousnesses is known as ‘empty.’ Being replete with the latent tendencies of uncontaminated phenomena, it is known as ‘nonempty.’ "
These four are as follows. (1) The latent tendencies of expression are such as those that have power over an eye consciousness’s apprehending blue appearing as the basis of the conceptual clinging of apprehending blue in such a way that this basis appears to be established through its own specific characteristics. (2) The latent tendencies of views about a self are those that have power over giving rise to views of clinging to a self through making a split between oneself and others. (3) The latent tendencies of the branches of existence are those of virtuous and nonvirtuous karmas, which have the power to accomplish all kinds of births and deaths in saṃsāric existence. (4) The latent tendencies of similar class are such as those that have the power over blue’s appearing as blue for an eye consciousness’s apprehending blue.
Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 235.15–236.8; D107, fol. 149b.2–5. Note that this resembles the presentation of the ālaya-consciousness in contrast with the uncontaminated latent tendencies of listening in the first chapter of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha. These latent tendencies of listening coexist with the ālaya-consciousness like a mix of milk and water, but they are the seeds of the dharmakāya and the remedy for the ālaya-consciousness. Since they are the natural outflow of the supramundane utterly pure dharmadhātu, they are the seeds of the supramundane mind.
Nanjio ed., 220.9–10; D107, fol. 142b.2–3.
Nanjio ed., 236.9–15; D107, fol. 149b.5–7.
Asaṅga’s Abhidharmasamuccaya (in general, in the notes, the name of the author of a text will be mentioned only with the first citation of that text) (D4049, fols. 99b.7– 100a.3) lists twenty-four kinds of impregnations of negative tendencies in terms of (1) expressions (which are omnipresent), (2) feelings, (3) afflictions, (4) karma, (5) maturation, (6) afflictive obscurations, (7) karmic obscurations, (8) maturational obscurations, (9) obscurations, (10) examination, (11) food, (12) sexual union, (13) dreams, (14) illnesses, (15) aging, (16) death, (17) fatigue, (18) being solid, (19) being great, (20) being medium, (21) being small, (22) afflictive obscurations, (23) obscurations of meditative absorption, and (24) cognitive obscurations. Sthiramati’s Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā (D4054, fol. 230a.4–230b.7) explains that all of these refer to certain latent tendencies in the ālaya-consciousness. (1) refers to the latent tendencies of the omnipresent clinging to the names of all phenomena, which have followed one since beginningless time. They are also called "the latent tendencies of proliferating reference points" because the aspects of such clinging to names arise again and again. (2)–(4) refer to the latent tendencies of contaminated feelings, afflictions, and karma, respectively. (5) are the latencies of dysfunctional karmic maturations, (6) the nonexhaustion and the long continuum of the afflictions, (7) obstacles to the path, such as the five actions without interval, (8) the antagonistic factors to the clear realization of reality— obtaining the bodies of hell beings and so on, (9) the obstacles to engaging in virtue— being overpowered by striving for sense pleasures and so on, (10) the obstacles to being ordained—being overwhelmed by examining sense pleasures and so on, (11) not eating moderately (either very little or too much), (12) the physical and mental harm due to intercourse, (13) the seemingly physical body that is experienced by virtue of being asleep, (14) the experiences of unease due to the elements in the body being unbalanced, (15) being powerless in terms of the change of these elements, (16) all faculties being disturbed when dying, (17) physical exhaustion due to long walks and so on, (18) being joined to all the preceding latent tendencies in their respectively concordant ways and thus not passing into nirvāṇa, (19)–(21) being engaged in the realms of desire, form, and formlessness, respectively, (22) the antagonistic factors to the awakenings of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, (23) the antagonistic factors to accomplishing the nine meditative absorptions of progressive abiding, and (24) the antagonistic factors to omniscience. All of these are fully relinquished on the path of nonlearning, when the liberations of mind and prajñā are accomplished. Sthiramati’s Sūtrālaṃkāravṛttibhāṣya (D4034, fols. 120b.6–121a.1) explains that those two liberations refer to the freedom from the afflictions (nirvāṇa) and the freedom from ignorance (omniscient wisdom), respectively. The first one means to be liberated from the afflictions to be relinquished through the paths of seeing and familiarization, which arises from the lack of attachment. The liberation of prajñā means realizing, just as it is, that the liberation of mind actually is liberation, which arises from the lack of ignorance.
Nanjio ed., 220.9–222.19; D107, fols. 142b.3–143b.5.
X.236–39.
X.253 and X.302.
X.59.
X.253.
Nanjio ed., 235.7–9; D107, fol. 149a.6–7.
Laṅkāvatārasūtra, X.13.
Obviously, this verse could have been a source for Paramārtha’s teachings on a ninth consciousness, the *amalavijñāna (see the chapter "The Uttaratantra and Its Relationship to Yogācāra").
Similar to the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra (Nanjio ed., 45.1–9; D107, fol. 72b.3–6) also states that the ālaya-consciousness is so subtle that it is very difficult to be realized by anybody (such as śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and tīrthikas) but buddhas and bodhisattvas on the bhūmis.
Nanjio ed., 222.20–224.1; D107, fols. 143b.6–144a.6. Note that passages like this in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra seem to have served as the basis for Gö Lotsāwa’s statement that the ālaya-consciousness represents a mere reflection of tathāgatagarbha (for details, see "Gö Lotsāwa’s Unique Mahāmudrā Interpretation of the Uttaratantra ").

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A Buddhist Bible (1938)

This early Western publication on Buddhism includes mention of the concept of buddha-nature 19 times. Thus this work would have been one of the few English publications at the time to mention buddha-nature by name. What follows is Goddard's preface to the book.

The first edition of this Buddhist Bible was published in 1932. When the need of a new edition became evident, it was decided to enlarge it so as to include other Scriptures of like importance so as to make it more comprehensive. This involved making a number of new translations for which we are indebted to Bhikshu Wai-tao. We are also indebted and are very grateful to a number of other Buddhist Scholars for permission to use their translations, as noted in the Appendix.
      The compiling of a Buddhist Bible is a very different matter from compiling the Christian Bible. In the first place, there is no Hierarchy or Ecclesiastic Council to pass upon the authenticity of different scriptures, and as to their canonicity. In the second place, Christian Scriptures are a closed system of doctrines and dogmas that have been inspired by the Holy Spirit and are to be accepted in faith. Buddhism, on the contrary, is looked upon as a growing organism whose scriptures are of many kinds as the organism has developed under different racial, temporal and cultural conditions. As disciples follow the Buddha's Noble Path and practice dhyana concentration and intuitive meditation they have an unfolding experience of spiritual insight and grace which any one of them may describe and elucidate. Some of these expediences are of highest value, some of less value. Some are concerned with the Dharma, some have to do with the rules of the Brotherhoods, some are philosophical, some psychological, some are commentaries and some are commentaries on commentaries. In the third place, there is the difference of quantity. In the Christian Bible there are sixty-six titles; Buddhist scriptures number over ten thousand, only a fraction of which have thus far been translated. In the Sung Dynasty about 972 AD a Chinese version of these scriptures was published consisting of 1521 works, in more than 5000 volumes, covering 130,000 pages.
      The nearest approach to canonicity is the Pali Tripitika. That was the earliest collection and was supposed to be limited to the words of Buddha. Southern Buddhists are passionately devoted to these Pali Scriptures and are inclined to disparage and dispute the more philosophical scriptures of the Northern School that developed later after Buddhism had come in contact with other world religions in Persia, Palestine, Egypt and Greece. Under these conditions there developed in Northern India, and Kashgar, a succession of very able minds, Ashvaghosha, Nargajuna, Vasobandhu and his brother Asangha from whose writings and teachings there developed various important schools of philosophical thought that profoundly changed the understanding of Buddha's Dharma.
      Later on as Buddhism spread into China and came under the influence of its immemorial culture and practical good sense, it took on forms of Taoist naturalism and kindly humanism, and there developed forms of "salvation by faith in Amitabha's mercy" and rebirth in his Pure Land. While in Tibet, coming in contact with its ancient Bon religion, and under the climatic conditions of its high altitudes, it took on forms of strenuousness and magic and tantric conceptions. Later on in Japan owing to political and social conditions incident to the presence of a limited but powerful noble class dominating a suppressed peasantry, which had developed extremes of loyalty and obedience and self-control, it took on forms of concentrative meditation known as Zen, and a still more widely divergent type of the True Pure Land Sect.
      Naturally among these diverse conditions Buddhist scriptures vary widely, and the quantity of them being so enormous, they have become segregated into different groups as they are favored by different schools of thought and practice. The Tien-tai favor the more philosophical scriptures, the Shingon, the more esoteric, the Ch’an (Zen), the more intellectual, and the Pure Land, the more emotional. The present editor has been guided in his selection of scriptures for this Buddhist Bible by a sincere purpose to make the selection as comprehensive as possible within its limits and to represent as truly as possible the original teachings of the Blessed One both as understood by the Southern and more primitive school and by the Northern and more philosophical interpreters. He has also humbly tried to have the choice vouched for by his own spiritual experience in his practice of the Noble Path and especially during its Eighth Stage of intuitive Dhyana.
      It follows, therefore, that the scriptures thus selected are the generally accepted scriptures of the Dhyana Sects—Ch’an in China, Zen in Japan and Kargyupta in Tibet. Of course among so enormous a collection of scriptures there are others that are favorites also, notably the Saddharma-pundarika (Lotus of the Perfect Law), and the Avatamsaka, said to be the grandest religious document ever written, but these are very large books in themselves. The late W. E. Soothil of London left a very careful translation of the Lotus that still waits a publisher. Dr. Suzuki of Kyoto has made a translation of the Gandhavyuha sections of the Avatamsaka that is now in process of being published. The inclusion of Laotzu’s Tao-teh-king is open to question as it is not strictly a Buddhist text, but its teaching has such a close affinity to Buddhist teaching and nearly all early Chinese Masters of Buddhism were Taoist scholars who, upon becoming Buddhists, did not give up their Taoist conceptions and terms, and because the Laotzuan teaching in the Tao-teh-king has had such a wholesome influence on the development of Chinese Buddhism, and, in later years, wherever the Tao-teh-king is held in reverence, it has tended to restrain individual pride of egoism, religious ceremonial, ecclesiasticism, priestcraft and insincerity generally, we make no apology for including it. In fact, it is our earnest wish that the Tao-teh-king may become one of the foundation stones of American and European Buddhism.
      Further introductory notes are reserved for the Appendix under the heads of the individual Scriptures, as are also -grateful appreciation to those who have contributed to the preparation and publication of this Bible, especially to those Buddhist scholars who have courteously granted the Editor permission to use their translations for this purpose
      Just a closing word as to the rules that have guided the Editor in his choice and handling of textual material. He has always kept in mind the spiritual needs of his readers. This Buddhist Bible is not intended to be a source book for critical literary and historical study. It is only intended to be a source of spiritual inspiration designed to awaken faith and to develop faith into aspiration and full realization. The original texts having for centuries been carried in memory and transcribed by hand by scribes who were often more loyal to their Master than to historical exactness, are often overloaded with interpolations and extensions, and in places are confused and obscure. To carry out the design of the Editor, he has omitted a great deal of matter not bearing directly upon the theme of the particular Scripture, and has interpreted occasionally where it seemed necessary and advisable, in order to provide an easier and more inspiring reading. The need for this course will become apparent to every earnest minded disciple.
      In these days when Western civilization and culture is buffeted as never before by foreboding waves of materialism and selfish aggrandisement both individual and national, Buddhism seems to hold out teachings of highest promise. For two thousand years Dhyana Buddhism has powerfully conditioned the cultural, ethical and spiritual life of the great Oriental nations. It well may be the salvation of Western civilization. Its rationality, its discipline, its emphasis on simplicity and sincerity, its thoughtfulness, its cheerful industry not for profit but for service, its love for all animate life, its restraint of desire in all its subtle forms, its actual foretastes of enlightenment and blissful peace, its patient acceptance of karma and rebirth, all mark it out as being competent to meet the problems of this excitement loving, materialistic, acquisitive and thoughtless age.
      Its basic principle of an eternal process based on unchanging law and operating in eternal recurrence, leading to mind-control, to highest cognition, to purest conceptions of love and compassion, to ever clearing insight, to highest perfect wisdom, to the self-giving of Bodhisattvas, and Buddhas, to blissful peace, is worthy of confidence; and its Noble Path worthy of

trial.
The theme of this Buddhist Bible is designed to show the unreality of all conceptions of a personal ego. Its purpose is to awaken faith in Buddhahood as being one’s true self-nature; to kindle aspiration to realize one’s true Buddha-nature; to energize effort to follow the Noble Path, to become Buddha. The true response to the appeal of this Buddhist Bible is not in outward activities, but in self-yielding, becoming a clear channel for Buddhahood's indrawing compassion, that all sentient beings may become emancipated, enlightened and brought to Buddhahood. (Goddard, preface, v–viii)

Goddard, Dwight, ed. A Buddhist Bible. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1938. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279263/page/n2/mode/2up.

Goddard, Dwight, ed. A Buddhist Bible. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1938. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279263/page/n2/mode/2up.;A Buddhist Bible (1938);Doctrine;Defining buddha-nature;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Dasheng qixin lun;A Buddhist Bible

PhD Diss

Hsiao, M.: A Study of Yogācāric Influence on Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine as Found in Laṅkāvatārasūtra

Abstract

Through a close examination on three Sanskrit compounds — i.e., tathāgatanairātmyagarbha, tathāgatagarbhālayavijñāna and pariniṣpannasvabhāvas tathāgatagarbhahṛdayam — in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, this thesis will demonstrate how the tathāgatagarbha thought in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra is significantly enriched by Yogācāric influence.
First, in regard to tathāgata-nairātmya-garbha, a doctrinal review of the term "nairātmya" is necessary, because its definition differs according to different traditions. In primitive Buddhism, the term "nairātmya" is a synonym of the term "anātman" (non-existence of a substantial self), which indicates that in the realm of suffering and the impermanence of life phenomena that arise according to the principle of co-dependent origination/ pratītyasamutpāda, no eternal and dependent ātman can be found. According to the Madhyamaka School, the term "nairātmya" is a synonym of the term "niḥsvabhāva" (no

intrinsic-nature) which implies that all beings, whether conditioned or unconditioned, are all devoid of an ever-abiding intrinsic nature. For the Yogācāra School, the reality of nairātmya is said to be grasped under the principle of mind-only. That is to say, the imagined self /kalpitātman that is the presentation of mind is unreal, while the indescribable self/ anabhilāpyātman that is the genuine mind itself is real. Finally, it can be said that the tathāgata-nairātmya-garbha in Laṅkāvatārasūtra accords well with the Yogācāra teaching. In other words, it is the Yogācāric sense of nairātmya that sheds an influence upon the tathāgatagarbha doctrine.
      Secondly, in regard to tathāgatagarbhālayavijñāna, a doctrinal development is promoted owing to the identification of tathāgatagarbha with ālayavijñāna, which according to the Yogācāra School is also named "sarvabīljavijñāna" (cognition as the seed of everything). This latter synonym references its function of bringing forth all beings just as a giant tree originates from a seed. As a result of its identification with the ālayavijñāna, the tathāgatagarbha is said to be endowed with the function of bringing forth all forms of existence and thus becomes the "producing cause" of all. This interpretation is not seen in earlier scriptures wherein the tathāgatagarbha is described simply as a static substance supporting all beings.
      Thirdly, in regard to pariniṣpannasvabhāvastathāgata-garbhahṛdayam, the implication of the tathāgatagarbha was expanded substantially by declaring that pariniṣpannasvabhāva is the very essence of tathāgatagarbha. The term "pariniṣpannasvabhāva" according to some important Yogācāra texts is defined as tathatā (ultimate realm of suchness). The combining of pariniṣpannasvabhāva with tathāgatagarbha that had formerly focused on the subjective potential of realizing wisdom, shifts the doctrinal emphasis toward the objective realm of realized perfection.
      This thesis reveals that, having assimilated the Yogācāric doctrine of dharmanairātmya, ālayavijñāna and pariniṣpannasvabhāva, the tathāgatagarbha thinking in Laṅkāvatārasūtra presents the comprehensive and distinctive features in comparison to the scriptures that preceded it.

Hsiao, Mei. "A Study of Yogācāric Influence on Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine as Found in Laṅkāvatārasūtra." PhD diss., University of Calgary, 2008. https://archive.org/details/yogacharastudyofyogacaricinfluenceontathagatagarbhadoctrineasfoundinlankavatarasutrameihsiaothe_179_w/mode/2up.

Hsiao, Mei. "A Study of Yogācāric Influence on Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine as Found in Laṅkāvatārasūtra." PhD diss., University of Calgary, 2008. https://archive.org/details/yogacharastudyofyogacaricinfluenceontathagatagarbhadoctrineasfoundinlankavatarasutrameihsiaothe_179_w/mode/2up.;A Study of Yogācāric Influence on Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine as Found in Laṅkāvatārasūtra;tathāgatagarbha;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Yogācāra;Terminology;Textual study;anātman;ālayavijñāna;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;Mei Hsiao;A Study of Yogācāric Influence on Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine as Found in Laṅkāvatārasūtra

PhD Diss

Chen, Shu-hui: Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices

The Tathāgatagarbha theory, also known as the Buddha-nature theory, is one of the most influential Mahāyāna doctrines in the East Asian Buddhism. In 1989, it was severely criticized by some Japanese scholars, namely, Shiro Matsumoto and Noriaki Hakamaya, for being contradictory to the Buddha's teaching of non-self (anātman) and accused of being a non-Buddhist theory in disguise. The purpose of this study is to refute such an accusation and to demonstrate the relationship between this theory and the Bodhisattva practices which are the very core of the Mahāyāna Buddhism.
This dissertation begins with definitions of the term "tathāgatagarbha" and some of its synonyms which are followed by a brief review of the historical development of the Tathāgatagarbha theory from India to China. With these as the background knowledge, it is easier to point out the fallacies of the two Japanese scholars' criticism on this theory. A key issue in their criticism is that they viewed the Tathāgatagarbha theory as the ātman of the Upaniṣads in disguise. It is therefore necessary to discuss not only the distinction between the ātman mentioned in the Tathāgatagarbha theory and that in the Upaniṣads but also the controversy over the issue of ātman versus anātman among the Buddhist scholars.
In the discussion to clarify the issue of ātman in the Tathāgatagarbha theory, it is demonstrated that the ātman in the Tathāgatagarbha theory is not only uncontradictory to the doctrine of anātman in Buddhism but very important to the Bodhisattva practices in the Mahāyāna Buddhism. It functions as a unity for the Bodhisattvas to voluntarily return to the world of saṃsāra again and again. Furthermore, the purport of the entire theory, that all sentient beings are endowed with the essence of the Buddha, supports various Bodhisattva practices such as the aspiration to save all beings in the world, the six perfections, etc. In a word, the Tathāgatagarbha theory is an excellent representative of the soteriology of the Mahāyāna Buddhism. Included in the end of this dissertation is an annotated translation of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra. (Source Accessed May 26, 2020)

Chen, Shu-hui Jennifer. "Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices." PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1998.

Chen, Shu-hui Jennifer. "Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices." PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1998.;Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices;tathāgatagarbha;Tathāgatagarbhasūtra;Matsumoto, S.;Hakamaya, N.;Critical Buddhism;anātman;ātman;gotra;dharmadhātu;dharmakāya;buddhadhātu;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Early Buddhism;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Indian Buddhism;Tathāgatagarbhasūtra;Anūnatvāpūrṇatvanirdeśaparivarta;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra;Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Ghanavyūhasūtra;Fo xing lun;Dasheng qixin lun;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Chinese Buddhism;icchantika;Tien Tai;Zen - Chan;Madhyamaka;Yogācāra;ālayavijñāna;paramārthasatya;Shu-hui Jennifer Chen; Affirmation in Negation: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha Theory in the Light of the Bodhisattva Practices

Article

All Buddhas and All Living Beings Are Just This One Mind: Teachings of the Buddhas and Zen Ancestors on Buddha Nature, Empty Awareness, and Nonduality—Compiled by Kokyo Henkel

This is a compilation of several sources that speak about buddha-nature. These include:

Pabhassara Sutta
Kevaddha Sutta
Nibbana Sutta
Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra
Samdhinirmochana Sutra
Mahaparinirvana Sutra
Shrimaladevi Sutra
Tathagatagarbha Sutra
Lankavatara Sutra
Bodhidharma’s Breakthrough Sermon
Sengcan’s Song of the Trusting Mind
Hongren’s Treatise on the Supreme Vehicle
Huineng’s Platform Sutra
Yongjia’s Song of Realizing the Way
Shitou’s Record
Shitou’s Song of the Grass-Roof Hermitage
Dongshan’s Song of the Jewel Mirror Samadhi
Caoshan’s Verse
Guishan’s Record
Mazu’s Record
Baizhang’s Record
Huangbo’s Transmission of Mind
Linji’s Record
Nanquan’s Record
Changsha’s Record
Yunmen’s Record
Yuanwu’s Letters
Hongzhi’s Record
Dogen’s Treasury of the True Dharma Eye
Ejo’s Absorption in the Treasury of Light
Keizan’s Transmission of Light
32nd Ancestor Hongren
34th Ancestor Qingyuan
38th Ancestor Dongshan
40th Ancestor Dongan
46th Ancestor Tanxia
49th Ancestor Xuedou
52nd Ancestor Dogen
53rd Ancestor Ejo
Chinul’s Complete Sudden Attainment of Buddhahood
Chinul’s Secrets of Cultivating the Mind
Bassui’s One Mind
Bankei’s Record
Hakuin’s Four Cognitions
Menzan’s Self-Enjoyment Samadhi
Shunryu Suzuki’s Mind Waves (from "Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind")
Shunryu Suzuki’s Resuming Big Mind (from "Not Always So")
Padmasambhava’s Self-Liberation through Seeing with Naked Awareness
Dakpo Tashi Namgyal’s Clarifying the Natural State
Karma Chagmey’s Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen

Jamgon Mipham’s Lamp that Dispels Darkness

Henkel, Kokyo. "All Buddhas and All Living Beings are Just This One Mind: Teachings of the Buddhas and Zen Ancestors on Buddha Nature, Empty Awareness, and Nonduality." Unpublished manuscript. n.d., PDF file. https://kokyohenkel.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/7/4/127410773/one_mind_buddha_nature_-_kokyo.pdf.

Henkel, Kokyo. "All Buddhas and All Living Beings are Just This One Mind: Teachings of the Buddhas and Zen Ancestors on Buddha Nature, Empty Awareness, and Nonduality." Unpublished manuscript. n.d., PDF file. https://kokyohenkel.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/7/4/127410773/one_mind_buddha_nature_-_kokyo.pdf.;All Buddhas and All Living Beings Are Just This One Mind: Teachings of the Buddhas and Zen Ancestors on Buddha Nature, Empty Awareness, and Nonduality—Compiled by Kokyo Henkel;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Early Buddhism;Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra;Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;Tathāgatagarbhasūtra;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Chinese Buddhism;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Japanese Buddhism;Shōbōgenzō;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Tibetan Buddhism;Kokyo Henkel;Kokyo Yakai (Luminous Owl, Midnight Liberation 光梟夜解);&nbsp

Interview

Buddha-Nature in Early Chan and Japanese Zen by Rev. Kokyo Henkel: Conversations on Buddha-Nature

In this video, part of the ongoing series entitled "Conversations on Buddha-Nature" produced by the Tsadra Foundation, Lopen Dr. Karma Phuntsho and Rev. Kokyo Henkel discuss buddha-nature in early Chan and Japanese Zen and comparisons with Tibetan Dzogchen. They also discuss some Koans, Dōgen, and many textual sources from Indian sutras in Tibetan and Chinese translation to sources for key schools of Buddhism in China and Japan up to more modern texts.

Kokyo Henkel has been practicing Zen since 1990 in residence at Tassajara Zen Mountain Center (most recently as Head of Practice), Green Gulch Farm Zen Center, No Abode Hermitage in Mill Valley, and Bukkokuji Monastery in Japan. He was ordained as a priest in 1994 by Tenshin Anderson Roshi and received Dharma Transmission from him in 2010. Kokyo is interested in exploring how the original teachings of Buddha-Dharma from ancient India, China, and Japan can still be very much alive and useful in present-day America to bring peace and openness to the minds of this troubled world.

Kokyo has also been practicing with the Tibetan Dzogchen ("Great Completeness") Teacher Tsoknyi Rinpoche since 2003, in California, Colorado, and Kathmandu.

Henkel, Rev. Kokyo. "Buddha-Nature in Early Chan and Japanese Zen." Conversations on Buddha-Nature with Lopen Dr. Karma Phuntsho. Produced by the Tsadra Foundation Research Department, June 26, 2021. Video, 1:23:03. https://youtu.be/j_V3v-oqnNU.

Henkel, Rev. Kokyo. "Buddha-Nature in Early Chan and Japanese Zen." Conversations on Buddha-Nature with Lopen Dr. Karma Phuntsho. Produced by the Tsadra Foundation Research Department, June 26, 2021. Video, 1:23:03. https://youtu.be/j_V3v-oqnNU.;Buddha-Nature in Early Chan and Japanese Zen;Buddha-nature as Emptiness;Buddha-nature as Luminosity;Buddha-nature as Self - Atman;Dzogchen;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Chinese Buddhism;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Japanese Buddhism;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Tibetan Buddhism;Tien Tai;Zen - Chan;tathāgatagarbha;ātman;Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra;Dasheng qixin lun;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra;Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;Dōgen;Mazu Daoyi;Schaik, S.;Suzuki, S.;Zhaozhou;Zhiyi;Kokyo Henkel;Kokyo Yakai (Luminous Owl, Midnight Liberation 光梟夜解);&nbsp

Video

Christopher V. Jones at the 2019 Tathāgatagarbha Symposium

Christopher Jones discusses the development of the concept of buddha-nature in the first five hundred years of the Common Era. He postulates that the most likely trajectory of buddha-nature thought in India entailed a reimagining of the expression tathāgatagarbha away from its contentious "ātmavādin" origins.

Jones, Christopher V. "Selfhood, Secrecy, Singularity: Reassessing the Early Life of the Tathāgatagarbha in India." Paper presented at the University of Vienna Symposium, Tathāgatagarbha Across Asia, Vienna, Austria, July 2019. Video, 45:01. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARzGpIOwFYc.

Jones, Christopher V. "Selfhood, Secrecy, Singularity: Reassessing the Early Life of the Tathāgatagarbha in India." Paper presented at the University of Vienna Symposium, Tathāgatagarbha Across Asia, Vienna, Austria, July 2019. Video, 45:01. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARzGpIOwFYc.;Christopher V. Jones at the 2019 Tathāgatagarbha Symposium;History of buddha-nature in India;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Early Buddhism;Takasaki, J.;Radich, M.;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Indian Buddhism;Buddha-nature as Self - Atman;tathāgatagarbha;Tathāgatagarbhasūtra;buddhadhātu;dharmakāya;Anūnatvāpūrṇatvanirdeśaparivarta;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra;Aṅgulimālīyasūtra;Mahābherīsūtra;Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra;Ratnagotravibhāgavyākhyā;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;ātman;ekayāna;Terminology;Christopher V. Jones; Selfhood, Secrecy, Singularity: Reassessing the Early Life of the Tathāgatagarbha in India

Book

Collected Papers on the Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine

The volume brings together a selection of the late author's previously published papers written in English (and one in German). Their subject matter relates by and large to the tathāgatagarbha theory or the idea of Buddhanature, which have been the main subjects of his research over the years.
      In part 1 he has singled out those scriptures that use the term tathāgatagarbha as their principal term and identified three scriptures—Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra, Anūnatvāpurṇatvanirdeśa, and Śrīmālādevīnirdeśa—as the basis for the formation of the tathāgatagarbha theory. Next, he has placed the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, which uses the term buddhadhātu for the first time as a synonym of tathāgatagarbha, and associated scriptures in a second group, while in the third group we have the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra and so on, in which the concept of tathāgatagarbha is identified with ālayavijñana, the basic concept of the Vijñānavāda.
      In part 2, he has dealt with the prehistory of the tathāgatagarbha theory in Mahāyāna scriptures that use terms synonymous with tathāgatagarbha, such as gotra and dhātu, tathāgatagotra, tathāgatotpattisambhava, āryavaṃsa, buddhaputra, dharmadhātu and dharmakāya, cittaprakṛti, and so on. The main points made in this work are discussed in the papers that have now been brought together in the present volume.
      This volume has for convenience' sake been divided into seven parts according to subject matter. Part 1 presents a textual study, namely, a critical edition of chapter 6 of the Laṅkāvatāra. Part 2 deals with subjects concerning scriptures such as the Laṅkāvatāra, part 3 with technical terms and basic concepts of the tathāgatagarbha theory, part 4 with tathāgatagarbha doctrine in general, and part 5 with Japanese Buddhism and Buddhism in East Asia (on the basis of scriptures translated into Chinese). Part 6 presents a historical survey of Japanese scholarship on Buddhism, and part 7 consists of several book reviews. (Source: Motilal Banarsidass)

Takasaki, Jikido. Collected Papers on the Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2014.

Takasaki, Jikido. Collected Papers on the Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2014.;Collected Papers on the Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;tathāgatagarbha;Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra;dharmadhātu;dharmakāya;dharmatā;buddhadhātu;ālayavijñāna;Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra;ekayāna;Buddha-nature of insentient things;Jikido Takasaki;Collected Papers on the Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine

Video

Donald S. Lopez, Jr. - Keynote of the 2019 Tathāgatagarbha Symposium

In his keynote lecture to the Vienna Tathāgatagarbha Symposium, Donald Lopez provides an overview of the history and influence of tathāgatagarbha doctrine as well as its various interpretations across the Mahāyāna world.

Lopez, Donald S., Jr. “Tathāgatagarbha: A Brief History.” Keynote lecture at the University of Vienna Symposium, Tathāgatagarbha Across Asia, Vienna, Austria, July 2019. Video, 40:17. https://youtu.be/0SSSdNNbeu8.

Lopez, Donald S., Jr. “Tathāgatagarbha: A Brief History.” Keynote lecture at the University of Vienna Symposium, Tathāgatagarbha Across Asia, Vienna, Austria, July 2019. Video, 40:17. https://youtu.be/0SSSdNNbeu8.;Donald S. Lopez, Jr. - Keynote of the 2019 Tathāgatagarbha Symposium;History of buddha-nature in Tibet;History of buddha-nature in China;History of buddha-nature in India;History of buddha-nature in Japan;History;Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan;guṇapāramitā;tathāgatagarbha;tathatā;Dasheng qixin lun;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra;Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra;Tathāgatagarbhasūtra;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;Aṅgulimālīyasūtra;ālayavijñāna;Schopen, G.;Obermiller, E.;Bhāvaviveka;Burnouf, E.;Asaṅga;Vasubandhu;Gimello, R.;Tsong kha pa;Lcang skya rol pa'i rdo rje;Donald S. Lopez, Jr.; Tathāgatagarbha: A Brief History

Book

Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra

This book offers a systematic analysis of one of the most important concepts characterizing the Yogācāra School of Buddhism (the last creative stage of Indian Buddhism) as outlined and explained in one of its most authoritative and influential texts, Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. Compiled in the second half of the fourth-century A.D., this sūtra not only represents a comprehensive synthesis of both early and late religio-philosophical ideas crucial to the understanding of Buddhism in India, but it also provides an insight into the very early roots of the Japanese Zen Buddhism in the heart of the South Asian esotericism.

The first part of the book outlines the three-fold nature of Being, as conceptualized in Buddhist metaphysics. The author uses an interpretive framework borrowed from the existentialist philosophy of Heidegger, in order to separate the transcendental Essence of Being from its Temporal manifestation as Self, and from its Spatial or Cosmic dimension. The second part clarifies the Buddhist approach to knowledge in its religious, transcendental sense and it shows that the Buddhists were actually first in making use of dialectical reasoning for the purpose of transcending the contradictory dualities imbedded in the common ways of perceiving, thinking, and arguing about reality. (Source: SUNY Press)

Sutton, Florin Giripescu. Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra: A Study in the Ontology and Epistemology of the Yogācāra School of Mahāyāna Buddhism. SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. https://archive.org/details/lankavatarafgsuttonexistenceandenlightenmentinthelankavatarasutraastudyintheonto_202003_621_R/mode/2up.

Sutton, Florin Giripescu. Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra: A Study in the Ontology and Epistemology of the Yogācāra School of Mahāyāna Buddhism. SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. https://archive.org/details/lankavatarafgsuttonexistenceandenlightenmentinthelankavatarasutraastudyintheonto_202003_621_R/mode/2up.;Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra;Textual study;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Yogācāra;Florin Giripescu Sutton;Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra: A Study in the Ontology and Epistemology of the Yogācāra School of Mahāyāna Buddhism

Video

Klaus-Dieter Mathes at the 2019 Tathāgatagarbha Symposium

Klaus-Dieter Mathes discusses Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen’s position on Buddha-nature. He describes how his student Zhangtön Sönam Drakpa defends his teacher's position by arguing that one faces eight undesired consequences if one does not strictly differentiate buddha-nature from the ground consciousness.

Mathes, Klaus-Dieter. “Zhang ston Bsod nams grags pa’s Defense of Dol po pa’s Clear-Cut Distinction between Buddha Nature and the Ground Consciousness.” Paper presented at the University of Vienna Symposium, Tathāgatagarbha Across Asia, Vienna, Austria, July 2019. Video, 40:48. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-ALrY63cho.

Mathes, Klaus-Dieter. “Zhang ston Bsod nams grags pa’s Defense of Dol po pa’s Clear-Cut Distinction between Buddha Nature and the Ground Consciousness.” Paper presented at the University of Vienna Symposium, Tathāgatagarbha Across Asia, Vienna, Austria, July 2019. Video, 40:48. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-ALrY63cho.;Klaus-Dieter Mathes at the 2019 Tathāgatagarbha Symposium;Zhentong;Dol po pa;Zhang ston bsod nams grags pa;'gos lo tsA ba gzhon nu dpal;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Tathāgatagarbhasūtra;Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra;Ratnagotravibhāgavyākhyā;Śrīmālādevīsūtra;ālayavijñāna;Jonang;Anūnatvāpūrṇatvanirdeśaparivarta;'gos lo tsA ba gzhon nu dpal;Karmapa, 3rd;Yogācāra;trisvabhāva;parikalpitasvabhāva;paratantrasvabhāva;pariniṣpannasvabhāva;Mahāyānottaratantraśāstropadeśa;Klaus-Dieter Mathes; Zhang ston Bsod nams grags pa’s Defense of Dol po pa’s Clear-Cut Distinction between Buddha Nature and the Ground Consciousness

Article

Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra (Vidyābhūṣaṇa)

No abstract given. Here are the first relevant paragraphs:

The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra consists of ten chapters, named respectively —(1) Rāvaṇādhyeṣaṇā parivarta, (2) Sarvadharmasamuccaya parivarta, (3) Anityatā parivarta, (4) Abhisamaya parivarta, (5) Tathāgata - nityānityatva, (6) Kṣaṇika parivarta, (7) Nairmāṇika parivarta, (8) Māṃsabhakṣaṇa parivarta, (9) Dhāraṇīparivarta, and (10) the Parisamāpti parivarta, which bears no special name.
Throughout the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra the speaker is Buddha himself. The first chapter of the book is addressed to Rāvaṇa, while the person spoken to in the remaining nine chapters is Mahāmati. Rāvaṇa prayed to Buddha for the solution of two questions, viz. : (1) what is the distinction between dharma and adharma, and (2) how could one pass beyond both dharma and adharma? Buddha’s answers to these questions form the subject-matter of the first chapter. Thereafter 108 questions were asked by Mahāmati, and Buddha’s answers to these questions form the topics of the remaining nine chapters. (Vidyābhūṣaṇa, para 10–11, 833)

Notes

1. J. W. Hauer, Das Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra und das Sāṅkhya (eine vorläufige Skizzeo, Stuttgart, 1927.
Id, Die Dhāraṇī im nördlichen Buddhismus und ihre parallelen in der sogennannten Mithrasliturgie. Ibid.
Beitrage zur Indischen Sprachwissenschaft und Religionsgeschichte.
1. See. my Studio comparative fra le tre versioni cinesi ed il testo sanskrito del i capitolo del Laṅkāvatāra, Memorie della R. Accademia dei Lincei, serie v, vol xviii, fasc, 5; and Una nuova edizione del Laṅkāvatāra in Studi Mahāyanici, Rivista di studi Orientali, vol. X.
2. In Studi Mahāyanici, pp. 574 ff., I have given a list of the verses inserted in the text, which have been repeated in the tenth chapter. This fact makes me rather doubtful whether many of the other verses collected there are not taken from some Mahāyāna text belonging to the same current of thought. Prof. Hauer thinks that the first Chapter belongs to the most ancient redaction of the book. I can hardly believe that; in fact, it cannot be found in the translation of Gunabhadra, and it has but very little relation with the rest of the book. On the other hand, I think that the gāthās represent the most ancient nucleus of the book, as it is shown by the numerous Prakritisms that have survived and that the redactors of the present vulgata could not avoid: e.g., desemi, pp. 76, 176, 181; vibhāvento, p. 95 ; vikalpenti, pp. 185 186; nāśenti, p. 190 ; deśyante for deśyamāne, p. 201.
1. For other references see Ui’s, Vaiśeṣika philosophy.
2. See my English translation of the Nyāyamukha in "Materiailen zur Kunde des Buddhismus" edited by Prof. Walleser, Heidelberg, to be published shortly.

Tucci, Giuseppe. "Notes on the Laṅkāvatāra." Indian Historical Quarterly 4 (1928): 545–56. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501828/page/n607/mode/2up.

Tucci, Giuseppe. "Notes on the Laṅkāvatāra." Indian Historical Quarterly 4 (1928): 545–56. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501828/page/n607/mode/2up.;Notes on the Laṅkāvatāra;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Giuseppe Tucci;&nbsp

Video

Rev. Kokyo Henkel: Sources of Buddha-Nature Teachings in the Zen Tradition

Henkel, Rev. Kokyo. "Sources of Buddha-Nature Teachings in the Zen Tradition." Conversations on Buddha-Nature with Lopen Dr. Karma Phuntsho. Produced by the Tsadra Foundation Research Department, June 26, 2021. Video, 20:56. https://youtu.be/vvdgwHudOrU.

Henkel, Rev. Kokyo. "Sources of Buddha-Nature Teachings in the Zen Tradition." Conversations on Buddha-Nature with Lopen Dr. Karma Phuntsho. Produced by the Tsadra Foundation Research Department, June 26, 2021. Video, 20:56. https://youtu.be/vvdgwHudOrU.;Rev. Kokyo Henkel: Sources of Buddha-Nature Teachings in the Zen Tradition;Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra;Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra;Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra;Dasheng qixin lun;Buddha-nature as Self - Atman;ātman;tathāgatagarbha;Zen - Chan;Metaphors for buddha-nature;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Chinese Buddhism;The doctrine of buddha-nature in Japanese Buddhism;Fazang;Sāramati;Rev. Kokyo Henkel: Sources of Buddha-Nature Teachings in the Zen Tradition

Book

Soûtra de l'Entrée à Lankâ

Voici la première traduction française du Soûtra de l'Entrée à Lankâ (Lankâvatâra) qui, avec le Soûtra des Dix Terres (Dashabhûmika) et le Soûtra du Dévoilement du sens profond (Sandhinirmocana), forme l'assise scripturaire de ce qu'il est commode mais inexact d'appeler l'«idéalisme bouddhiste».

Négation pure et simple des Idées - platoniciennes, cartésiennes ou «modernes» -, cet idéalisme singulier n'est pas le contraire du matérialisme car, s'il ramène effectivement l'être au concept et les choses à la pensée, il n'admet pas non plus la réalité ultime de la conscience ni de tout ce qui entre dans les catégories du spirituel : il s'agit plutôt, comme l'ensemble de la philosophie bouddhiste, d'une dénonciation rationnelle des limites et dangers du réalisme naïf qui semble dominer la pensée humaine.

Manuel de réalisation intérieure, le Lankâ décrit la vacuité de la matière, où il ne voit que les représentations, et la vacuité du psychique, lequel peut se ramener à autant d'idées fictives, avant de proposer une méthode contemplative radicale, fondée sur la «nature de bouddha» en tant que «claire lumière naturelle de l'esprit», dont le chan/zen et le tantrisme sont les applications les plus abouties.

La présente traduction, réalisée sur la version chinoise de Shikshânanda (702), est agrémentée de quelques indispensables notes que devraient compléter les brillantes remarques de Fazang du Huayan, assistant styliste du traducteur, dans ses Mystères essentiels de l'Entrée à Lankâ, à paraître prochainement. (Source: Fayard)

Carré, Patrick, trans. Soûtra de l'Entrée à Lankâ. Trésors du bouddhisme. Paris: Fayard, 2006.

Carré, Patrick, trans. Soûtra de l'Entrée à Lankâ. Trésors du bouddhisme. Paris: Fayard, 2006.;Soûtra de l'Entrée à Lankâ;Laṅkāvatārasūtra;Śikṣānanda;Śikṣānanda; Patrick Carré;Soûtra de l'Entrée à Lankâ. Lankâvatâra

Book

Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra (1930)

While preparing a second series of Essays in Zen Buddhism, the author thought it desirable for the reader to know something more about the Laṅkāvatāra than had been sketched out in the First Series. To do this he had to study the sutra more thoroughly, and as he was doing so, his interest in it grew stronger and wider. Then, he came to the conclusion that his study of the Laṅkāvatāra might be published independently and even prior to the second series of Zen essays. The result is this book now before the reader.
The Laṅkāvatāra is a Mahayana text difficult in more than one way to understand perfectly as to its meaning and also in Its proper historical setting. But its importance as giving most of the fundamental tenets of Mahayana Buddhism has urged the author to publish whatever results he has gained so far in his study. They are no doubt short of being quite satisfactory from a strictly scholarly point of view, but the author's earnest wish is to open the way, if he could so hope, for further study and more thoroughgoing investigation of the text. Mahayana Buddhism is

just beginning to be known in the West. As to the appreciation of its full significance we have to wait patiently for some years yet to come.
      The first two parts of these Studies were already published In The Eastern Buddhist, but in the present work they have been revised fully and inaccuracies corrected as far as available. The third part is entirely new. As the Studies were not planned out as a whole from the beginning but have grown progressively in the author's mind, some repetitions have become inevitable. The second part dealing with the Laṅkāvatāra containing the philosophy of Zen Buddhism was written first. As it was being revised after its publication in The Eastern Buddhist, Volume IV, Nos. 3-4, for 1928, the thought suggested itself that the sutra must be studied also textually since there are still three Chinese and one (or two) Tibetan translations. The result was the first part of the present work, which appeared as an independent article in The Eastern Buddhist, Volume V, No. 1, for 1929.
      The Laṅkāvatāra does not belong exclusively to the Zen school of Buddhism, it is also the common property of the Mahayana. When it is studied apart from Zen, some of the important conceptions developed in the sutra, which do not necessarily belong to the philosophy of Zen, are to be expounded, however briefly. Hence the third part of the present Studies, entitled "Some of the Important Theories Expounded in the Laṅkāvatāra."
      The author has prepared for the benefit principally of his Japanese and Cbinese readers a glossary of the Sanskrit technical terms found in the book. This he hopes to be of use in their perusal of Sanskrit Buddhist literature and at the same time illustrative of the methods of the Indian-Chinese translators. (Suzuki, preface, v–vi)

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[1] There are two Sanskrit editions by B. Nanjio (Kyoto: Otani University Press, 1923) and P. L. Vaidya (Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1963). The sūtra is also preserved in two Tibetan (D107, 136 folios and D108, ninety-three folios) and three Chinese translations (Taishō 670–72). D107 corresponds closely to Nanjio’s Sanskrit edition, while D108 is a Tibetan translation of the Chinese one by Guṇabhadra (Taishō 670). This translation lacks the first and the last two of the longer version’s ten chapters, which were obviously added later (as was probably the eighth one). The first, eighth, and ninth chapters are not at all related to the other chapters. Though the tenth chapter (entirely in verse) repeats over two hundred verses from the preceding chapters, about 680 verses are new. Many of them appear to be quite random, while some show significant differences in contents from the other chapters. Generally, except for the last chapter, most parts of the sūtra are taught in both a prose and a verse portion. As Shiu (2006, 171) reports, according to Fazang, when he assisted Śikṣānanda with the translation of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, he was faced with a total of five different versions of the work, and they had to carefully collate these different versions while also comparing their collation with the two earlier Chinese translations. The style of a collation or compilation of different sources is likewise obvious in the extant Sanskrit version and the Tibetan translation (naturally, it is very hard to tell what is to be considered " original" and what has been added later). For English translations and studies of this sūtra, see Suzuki 1930 and 1979, Sutton 1991, and Red Pine 2012. For a comparison of the Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit versions, see Suzuki 1979, 14–37.

[2] Unless one follows CMW’s equation of the Prakrit verse about tathāgatas’ becoming visible like gold in stony debris being purified in RGVV (J6) with the similar verse X.751 in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra.

[3] Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 67.15–17; D107, fol. 81b.6–7. Throughout, my translations from this sūtra follow the Sanskrit.

[4] D107 ends with "so it is with sentient beings in the skandhas."

[5] X.745–46, 748–53, and 755–56.

[6] X.763 and 765–66.

[7] Nanjio ed., p. 242.4–6; D107, fol. 152a.1–2. Note that D107 renders the compound śūnyatāvikṣipta as sting pa nyid kyis g.yengs pa.

[8] A more literal (and more correct) translation of the classical Yogācāra term "false imagination" (Skt. abhūtaparikalpa, Tib. yang dag ma yin pa’i kun tog), also found in the Uttaratantra and RGVV, is "imagination of what is unreal." That is, what is meant is not that the imagination (parikalpa; which is equivalent to the dependent nature) itself is false or unreal (though it is ultimately so) but what it imagines (parikalpita; the imaginary nature) is unreal. Nevertheless, I chose "false imagination" since "imagination of what is unreal" appears to be too long and unwieldy a term and because "false" in "false imagination" (instead of "unreal imagination") can be understood as referring to the essentially mistaken mode of operation of imagination, which implies that what is imagined is false or unreal too. In Yogācāra in particular, the terms "imagination" (parikalpa) and "conception" (kalpana, vikalpa, and their cognates) refer to all the levels of the continuous, constructive yet deluded activity of the mind that never tires of producing all kinds of dualistic appearances and experiences, thus literally building its own saṃsāric world.D

[9] 'Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 77.13–78.1; D107, fols. 85.b.7–86a.3.

[10] The five dharmas, which are taught in many mahāyāna scriptures, are names, causal features, imagination, perfect wisdom, and suchness. (1) "Names" are mere designations, such as "book." (2) "Causal features" (Skt. nimitta can mean both "cause" and "characteristic" and is to be understood in this double sense here) refers to the bases for such designations, that is, dualistically appearing entities that on the level of seeming reality, perform functions and have certain characteristics. (3) Here, "imagination" is a collective term for the eight kinds of consciousness. (4) "Perfect wisdom" bears this name because it is the perceiving subject of suchness. (5) "Suchness" is the ultimate object to be focused on through the path—the dharmadhātu. Among these, (1) corresponds to the imaginary nature, (2)–(3) represent the dependent nature, and (4)–(5) are the perfect nature in terms of subject and object (or the unmistaken and unchanging perfect nature), respectively.

[11] X.417–418 and 420–421.

[12] Note that this echoes RGVV’s (J3–4) explanation of the essences of the three jewels being attained on the eighth, ninth, and tenth bhūmis, respectively.

[13] Nanjio ed., 77.3–4; D107, fol. 85b.4–5.

[14] See Brunnhölzl 2004, 530–32.

[15] Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 78.1–4; D107, fol. 86a.3–4.

[16] A later parallel passage includes suchness, the nature of phenomena, the dharmakāya, the lack of nature, and being primordially void and peaceful in this list of equivalents of the tathāgata heart.

[17] That is, the fruitions of the three Buddhist yānas.

[18] Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 78.5–79.11; D107, fol. 86a.4–86b.5.

[19] "Active consciousnesses" refers to the mental consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses.

[20] Note that this paragraph bears some resemblance with Aṅgulimāla’s response to Mañjuśrī about properly distinguishing what is empty and what is not empty. This is further highlighted by the version of the first sentence in this paragraph that is mentioned in Shiu (2006, 171) and is found only in Bodhiruci’s Chinese translation of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra (Taishō 671, 559c; maybe a lost version of the sūtra), while it is absent in all other Chinese and Tibetan translations as well as the extant Sanskrit version: "Mahāmati, the notion of momentariness is known as ‘empty.’ The ālaya-consciousness, which is known as the tathāgata heart, without the latent tendencies of the common active consciousnesses is known as ‘empty.’ Being replete with the latent tendencies of uncontaminated phenomena, it is known as ‘nonempty.’ "

[21] These four are as follows. (1) The latent tendencies of expression are such as those that have power over an eye consciousness’s apprehending blue appearing as the basis of the conceptual clinging of apprehending blue in such a way that this basis appears to be established through its own specific characteristics. (2) The latent tendencies of views about a self are those that have power over giving rise to views of clinging to a self through making a split between oneself and others. (3) The latent tendencies of the branches of existence are those of virtuous and nonvirtuous karmas, which have the power to accomplish all kinds of births and deaths in saṃsāric existence. (4) The latent tendencies of similar class are such as those that have the power over blue’s appearing as blue for an eye consciousness’s apprehending blue.

[22] Laṅkāvatārasūtra, Nanjio ed., 235.15–236.8; D107, fol. 149b.2–5. Note that this resembles the presentation of the ālaya-consciousness in contrast with the uncontaminated latent tendencies of listening in the first chapter of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha. These latent tendencies of listening coexist with the ālaya-consciousness like a mix of milk and water, but they are the seeds of the dharmakāya and the remedy for the ālaya-consciousness. Since they are the natural outflow of the supramundane utterly pure dharmadhātu, they are the seeds of the supramundane mind.

[23] Nanjio ed., 220.9–10; D107, fol. 142b.2–3.

[24] Nanjio ed., 236.9–15; D107, fol. 149b.5–7.

[25] Asaṅga’s Abhidharmasamuccaya (in general, in the notes, the name of the author of a text will be mentioned only with the first citation of that text) (D4049, fols. 99b.7– 100a.3) lists twenty-four kinds of impregnations of negative tendencies in terms of (1) expressions (which are omnipresent), (2) feelings, (3) afflictions, (4) karma, (5) maturation, (6) afflictive obscurations, (7) karmic obscurations, (8) maturational obscurations, (9) obscurations, (10) examination, (11) food, (12) sexual union, (13) dreams, (14) illnesses, (15) aging, (16) death, (17) fatigue, (18) being solid, (19) being great, (20) being medium, (21) being small, (22) afflictive obscurations, (23) obscurations of meditative absorption, and (24) cognitive obscurations. Sthiramati’s Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā (D4054, fol. 230a.4–230b.7) explains that all of these refer to certain latent tendencies in the ālaya-consciousness. (1) refers to the latent tendencies of the omnipresent clinging to the names of all phenomena, which have followed one since beginningless time. They are also called "the latent tendencies of proliferating reference points" because the aspects of such clinging to names arise again and again. (2)–(4) refer to the latent tendencies of contaminated feelings, afflictions, and karma, respectively. (5) are the latencies of dysfunctional karmic maturations, (6) the nonexhaustion and the long continuum of the afflictions, (7) obstacles to the path, such as the five actions without interval, (8) the antagonistic factors to the clear realization of reality— obtaining the bodies of hell beings and so on, (9) the obstacles to engaging in virtue— being overpowered by striving for sense pleasures and so on, (10) the obstacles to being ordained—being overwhelmed by examining sense pleasures and so on, (11) not eating moderately (either very little or too much), (12) the physical and mental harm due to intercourse, (13) the seemingly physical body that is experienced by virtue of being asleep, (14) the experiences of unease due to the elements in the body being unbalanced, (15) being powerless in terms of the change of these elements, (16) all faculties being disturbed when dying, (17) physical exhaustion due to long walks and so on, (18) being joined to all the preceding latent tendencies in their respectively concordant ways and thus not passing into nirvāṇa, (19)–(21) being engaged in the realms of desire, form, and formlessness, respectively, (22) the antagonistic factors to the awakenings of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, (23) the antagonistic factors to accomplishing the nine meditative absorptions of progressive abiding, and (24) the antagonistic factors to omniscience. All of these are fully relinquished on the path of nonlearning, when the liberations of mind and prajñā are accomplished. Sthiramati’s Sūtrālaṃkāravṛttibhāṣya (D4034, fols. 120b.6–121a.1) explains that those two liberations refer to the freedom from the afflictions (nirvāṇa) and the freedom from ignorance (omniscient wisdom), respectively. The first one means to be liberated from the afflictions to be relinquished through the paths of seeing and familiarization, which arises from the lack of attachment. The liberation of prajñā means realizing, just as it is, that the liberation of mind actually is liberation, which arises from the lack of ignorance.

[26] Nanjio ed., 220.9–222.19; D107, fols. 142b.3–143b.5.

[27] X.236–39.

[28] X.253 and X.302.

[29] X.59.

[30] X.253.

[31] Nanjio ed., 235.7–9; D107, fol. 149a.6–7.

[32] Laṅkāvatārasūtra, X.13.

[33] Obviously, this verse could have been a source for Paramārtha’s teachings on a ninth consciousness, the *amalavijñāna (see the chapter "The Uttaratantra and Its Relationship to Yogācāra").

[34] Similar to the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra (Nanjio ed., 45.1–9; D107, fol. 72b.3–6) also states that the ālaya-consciousness is so subtle that it is very difficult to be realized by anybody (such as śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and tīrthikas) but buddhas and bodhisattvas on the bhūmis.

[35] Nanjio ed., 222.20–224.1; D107, fols. 143b.6–144a.6. Note that passages like this in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra seem to have served as the basis for Gö Lotsāwa’s statement that the ālaya-consciousness represents a mere reflection of tathāgatagarbha (for details, see "Gö Lotsāwa’s Unique Mahāmudrā Interpretation of the Uttaratantra ").

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Laṅkāvatārasūtra

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